Cryptosporidiosis-an overview (2024)

1. Tyzzer EE. Cryptosporidium parvum (sp. nov.), a coccidium found in the small intestine of the common mouse. Arch fur Protistenkunde. 1912;26:394–412. [Google Scholar]

2. Nime FA, Burek JD, Page DL, Holscher HA, Yardley JH. Acute enterocolitis in a human being infected with the protozoan Cryptosporidium. Gastroenterol. 1976;70:592–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Fayer R. Taxonomy and species delineation in Cryptosporidium. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124:90–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Xiao L, Fayer R, Ryan U, Upton SJ. Cryptosporidium taxonomy: recent advances and implications for public health. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:72–97. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Santin M, Trout J.M. Cryptosporidiosis of Livestock. In: Fayer R, Xiao L., editors. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis. 2nd edition. Boca Raton: FL. CRC Press; 2008. pp. 451–483. [Google Scholar]

6. Cama VA, Ross JM, Crawford S, Kawai V, Chavez-Valdez R, Vargas D, et al. Differences in clinical manifestations among Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in HIV-infected persons. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:684–91. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

7. Azami M, Moghadam DD, Salehi R, Salehi M. The identification of Cryptosporidium species (protozoa) in Isfahan, Iran by PCR-RFLP analysis of the 18s rRNA gene. Molec Biol (Mosk) (in Russian) 2007;41:851–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

8. Pedraza-Diaz S, Amar C, Iversen AM, Stanley PJ, McLauchlin J. Unusual cryptosporidium species recovered from human faeces: first description of Cryptosporidium felis and Cryptosporidium “dog type” from patients in England. J Med Microbiol. 2001;50:293–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Essid R, Mousli M, Aoun K, Abdelmalek R, Mellouli F, Kanoun F, et al. Identification of Cryptosporidium species infecting humans in Tunisia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;79:702–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Morse TD, Nichols RA, Grimason AM, Campbell BM, Tembo KC, Smith HV. Incidence of cryptosporidiosis in paediatric patients in Malawi. Epidemiol Infect. 2007;135:1307–15. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Ong CS, Eisler DL, Alikhani A, Fung VW, Tomblin J, Bowie WR, et al. Novel Cryptosporidium genotypes in sporadic Cryptosporidium cases: First report of human infections with a cervine genotype. Emerg Infec Dis. 2002;8:263–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. Alves M, Xiao L, Antunes F, Matos O. Distribution of Cryptosporidium subtypes in humans and domestic and wild ruminants in Portugal. Parasitol Res. 2006;99:287–92. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

13. Campbell I, Tzipori AS, Hutchison G, Angus KW. Effect of disinfectants on survival of cryptosporidium oocysts. Vet Rec. 1982;111:414–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

14. Templeton TJ, Lancto CA, Vigdorovich V, Liu C, London NR, Hadsall KZ, et al. The Cryptospodium oocysts wall protein is a member of a multigene family and has a hom*olog in Toxoplasma. Infec Immun. 2004;72:980–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Smith HV, Nichols RAB, Grimason AM. Cryptosporidium excystation and invasion: getting to the guts of the matter. Trends Parasitol. 2005;21:133–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Woodmansee DB. Studies of in vitro excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum from calves. J Protozool. 1987;34:398–402. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Widmer G, Klein P, Bonilla R. Adaptation of Cryptosporidium oocysts to different excystation conditions. Parasitol. 2007;134:1583–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Borowski H, Clode PL, Thompson RCA. Active invasion and/or encapsulation? A reappraisal of host-cell parasitism by Cryptosporidium. Trends Parasitol. 2008;24:509–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

19. Arrowood MJ, Sterling CR, Healey MC. Immunofluorescent microscopical visualization of trails left by gliding Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. J Parasitiol. 1991;77:315–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

20. Yao L, Yin J, Zhang X, Liu Q, Li J, Chen L, et al. Cryptosporidium parvum: Identification of a new surface adhesion protein on sporozoite and oocyst by screening of a phage-display cDNA library. Exp Parasitol. 2007;115:333–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. Sanderson SJ, Xia D, Prieto H, Yates J, Heiges M, Kissinger JC, et al. Determining the protein repertoire of Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. Proteomics. 2008;8:1398–414. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

22. Nesterenko MV, Woods K, Upton SJ. Receptor/ligand interactions between Cryptosporidium parvum and the surface of the host cell. Biochim Biophy Acta. 1999;1454:165–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Fayer R. General Biology. In: Fayer R, Xiao L, editors. Cryptospiridium and Cryptosporidiosis. 2nd edition. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press; 2008. pp. 1–42. [Google Scholar]

24. Chen XM, O'Hara SP, Huang BQ, Splinter PL, Nelson JB, LaRusso NF. Localized glucose and water influx facilitates Cryptosporidium parvum cellular invasion by means of modulation of host-cell membrane protrusion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102:6338–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. Perkins ME, Riojas YA, Wu TW, Le Blancq SM. CpABC, a Cryptosporidium parvum ATP-binding cassette protein at the host-parasite boundary in intracellular stages. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1999;96:5734–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

26. Abrahamsen MS, Templeton TJ, Enomoto S, Abrahante JE, Zhu G, Lancto CA, et al. Complete genome sequence of the Apicomplexan, Cryptosporidium parvum. Science. 2004;304:441–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Xu P, Widmer G, Wang Y, Ozaki LS, Alves JM, Serrano MG, Puiu D, et al. The genome of Cryptosporidium hominis. Nature. 2004;431:1107–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Borowski H, Thompson RCA, Armstrong T, Clode PL. Morphological characterization of Cryptosporidiujm parvum life-cycle stages in an in vitro model system. Parasitol. 2010;137:13–26. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Wanyiri JW, Techasintana P, O'Connor RM, Blackman MJ, Kim K, Ward HD. Role of CpSUB1, a subtilisin-like protease, in Cryptosporidium parvum infection in vitro. Eukaryot Cell. 2009;8:470–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

30. Yang S, Healey MC, Du C, Zhang J. Complete development of Cryptosporidium parvum in bovine fallopian tube epithelial cells. Infect Immun. 1996;64:349–54. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Eng J Med. 1994;331:161–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Monge R, Chinchilla M. Presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in fresh vegetables. J Food Protect. 1996;59:202–3. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Freire-Santos F, Oteiza-Lopez AM, Vergara-Castiblanco CA, Ares-Mazas E, Alvarez-Suarez E, Garcia-Martin O. Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in bivalve molluscs destined for human consumption. J Parasitol. 2000;86:853–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Zhou L, Singh A, Jiang J, Xioa L. Molecular surveillance of Cryptosporidium spp. in raw wastewater in Milwaukee; Implications for understanding outbreak occurrence and transmission dynamics. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:5254–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Corso PS, Kramer MH, Blair KA, Addiss DG, Davis JP, Haddix AC. Cost of illness in the 1993 waterborne Cryptosporidium outbreak, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:426–31. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Llorente MT, Clavel A, Goni MP, Varea M, Seral C, Becerril R, et al. Genetic characterization of Cryptosporidium species from humans in Spain. Parasitol Int. 2007;56:201–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Tumwine JK, Kekitiinwa A, Nabukeera N, Akiyoshi DE, Rich SM, Widmer G, et al. Cryptosporidium parvum in children with diarrhea in Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003;68:710–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Navin TR, Juranek DD. Cryptosporidiosis: clinical, epidemiologic, and parasitologic review. Rev Infect Dis. 1984;6:313–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Neill MA, Rice SK, Ahmad NV, Flanigan TP. Cryptosporidiosis: an unrecognized cause of diarrhea in elderly hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:168–70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. Jaggi N, Rajeshwari S, Mittal SK, Mathur MD, Baveja UK. Assessment of the immune and nutritional status of the host in childhood dairrhoea due to cryptosporidium. J Commun Dis. 1994;26:181–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Checkley W, Epstein LD, Gilman RH, Black RE, Cabrera L, Sterling CR. Effects of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in Peruvian children; growth faltering and subsequent catch-up growth. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148:497–506. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Guerrant DI, Moore SR, Lima AA, Patrick PD, Schorling JB, Guerrant RL. Association of early childhood diarrhea cryptosporidiosis with impaired physical fitness and cognitive function four–seven years later in a poor urban community in northeast Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;61:707–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Bushen OY, Kohli A, Pinkerton RC, Dupnik K, Newman RD, Sears CL, et al. Heavy cryptosporidial infections in children in northeat Brazil: comparison of Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007;101:278–84. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Hunter PR, Hughes S, Woodhouse S, Raj N, Syes Q, Chalmers RM, et al. Health sequelae of human cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:504–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Xiao L. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis: an update. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124:80–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Cama VA, Bern C, Roberts J, Cabrera L, Sterling CR, Ortega Y, et al. Cryptosporidium species and subtypes and clinical manifestation in children, Peru. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:1567–74. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Okhuysen PC, Chappell CL, Crabb JH, Sterling CR, DuPont HL. Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:1275–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Zu SX, Li JF, Barrett LJ, Fayer R, Shu SY, McAuliffe JF, et al. Seroepidemiologic study of Cryptosporidium infection in children from rural communities of Anhui, China and Fortaleza, Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;51:1–10. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Gentile G, Venditti M, Micozzi A, Caprioli A, Donelli G, Tirindelli C, et al. Cryptosporidiosis in patients with hematologic malignancies. Rev Infect Dos. 1991;13:842–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Hong DK, Wong CJ, Gutierrez K. Severe cryptosporidiosis in a seven-year-old transplant recipient: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Transplant. 2007;11:94–100. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Centers for Disease Control Cryptosporidiosis: assessment of chemotherapy of males with acquired immune dieficiency syndrome (AIDS) Morbid Mortal Weekly Rep. 1982;31:589–92. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Lopez-Velez R, Tarazona R, Garcia-Camacho A, Gomez-Mampaso E, Guerro A, Moreira V, et al. Intestinal and extraintestinal cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients. Eu J Clin Micro Infect Dis. 1995;14:677–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Assefa B, Erko B, Medhin G, Assefa Z, Shimelis T. Intestinal parasitic infections in relation to HIV/AIDS status, diarrhea and CD4 T-cell count. BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:155. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Manabe YC, Clark DP, Moore RD, Lumadue JA, Dahlman HR, Belitsos PC, et al. Cryptosporidiosis in patients with AIDS: correlates of disease and survival. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:536–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. Blanshard C, Jackson AM, Shanson DC, Francis N, Gazzard BG. Cryptosporidiosis in HIV-seropositive patients. Q J Med. 1992;85:813–23. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

56. Maggi P, Larocca AM, Quarto M, Serio G, Brandonisio O, Angarano G, et al. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2000;19:213–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

57. Rossi P, Rivasi F, Codeluppi M, Catania A, Tamburrini A, Righi E, et al. Gastric involvement in AIDS associated cryptosporidiosis. Gut. 1998;43:476–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

58. Rivasi F, Rossi P, Righi E, Pozio E. Gastric cryptosporidiosis: correlation between intensity of infection and histological alterations. Histopathology. 1999;34:405–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

59. Kvac M, Sak B, Kvetanova D, Ditrich O, Hofmannova L, Modry D, et al. Infectivity, pathogenicity, and genetic characteristics of mammalian Cryptosporidium spp. in domestic ruminants. Vet Parasitol. 2008;153:363–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

60. Denkinger CM, Hangopal P, Ruiz P, Dowdy LM. Cryptosporidium parvum-associated sclerosing cholangitis in a liver transplant patient. Transplant Infect Dis. 2008;10:133–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Wolska-Kusnierz B, Bajer A, Caccio S, Heropolitanska-Pliszka E, Bernatowska E, Socha P, et al. Cryptosporidium infection in patients with primary immunodeficiencies. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2007;45:458–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

62. O'Hara SP, Small AJ, Gajdos GB, Badley AD, Chen XM, Larusso NF. HIV-1 Tat protein suppresses cholangiocyte toll-like receptor 4 expression and defense against Cryptosporidium parvum. J Infect Dis. 2009;199:1185–204. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

63. Stephens J, Cosyns M, Jones M, Hayward A. Liver and bile duct pathology following Cryptosporidium parvum infection of immunodeficient mice. Hepatology. 1999;30:27–35. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

64. Teare JP, Daly CA, Rodgers C, Padley SP, co*ker RJ, Main J, et al. Pancreas abnormalities and AIDS related sclerosing cholangitis. Genitourin Med. 1997;73:271–3. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

65. Hawkins SP, Thomas RP, Teasdale C. Acute pancreatitis: a new finding in cryptosporidium enteritis. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987;294:483–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

66. Baskerville A, Ramsay AD, Millward-Sadler GH, Cook RW, Cranage MP, Greenaway PJ. Chronic pancreatitis and biliary fibrosis associated with cryptosporidiosis in simian AIDS. J Comp Pathol. 1991;105:415–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

67. Sreter T, Varga I. Cryptosporidiosis in birds–A review. Vet Parasitol. 2000;87:261–79. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

68. Meynard JL, Meyohas MC, Binet D, Chouaid C, Frottiers J. Pulmonary cryptosporidiosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Infection. 1996;24:328–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

69. Kibbler CC, Smith A, Hamilton-Dutoit SJ, Milburn H, Pattinson JK, Prentice HG. Pulmonary cryprosporidiosis occurring in a bone marrow transplant patient. Scand J Infect Dis. 1987;19:581–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

70. Mor SM, Tumwine JK, Ndeezi G, Srinivasan MG, Kaddu-Mulindwa DH, Tzipori S, et al. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in HIV-seronegative children in Uganda: potential for respiratory transmission. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1366–72. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

71. Lanzarini P, Gatti S, Btuno A, Corona S, Scaglia M. Experimental respiratory cryptosporidiosis in immunosuppressed rats: a light and electron microscopy study. Parasite. 1999;8:217–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

72. Assad NY, Sadek GS. Pulmonary cryptosporidiosis: role of COX-2 and NF-κB. APMIS. 2006;114:682–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

73. Brantley RK, Williams KR, Silva TM, Sistom M, Thielman NM, Ward H, et al. AIDS-associated diarrhea and wasting in Northeast Brazil is associated with subtherapeutic levels of antiretroviral medication and with both bovine and human subtypes of Cryptosporidium parvum. Braz J Infect Dis. 2003;7:16–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

74. Kelly P, Makumbi FA, Carnaby S, Simjee AE, Farthing MJ. Variable distribution of Cryptosporidium parvum in the intestine of AIDS patients revealed by polymerase chain reaction. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1998;10:855–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

75. Goodgame R. Intestinal function and injury in acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome-related cryptosporidiosis. Gastroenterol. 1995;108:1075–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

76. Phillips AD, Thomas AG, Walker-Smith JA. Cryptosporidium, chronic diarrhoea and the proximal small intestine. Gut. 1992;33:1057–61. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

77. Guarino A, Castaldo A, Russo S, Spagnuolo MI, Canani RB, Tarallo L, et al. Enteric cryptosporidiosis in pediatric HIV infection. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1997;25:182–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

78. Petri WA Jr, Miller M, Binder HJ, Levine MM, Dillingham R, Guerrant RL. Enteric infections, diarrhea, and their impact on function and development. J Clin Invest. 2008;118:1277–90. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

79. Field M. Intestinal ion transport and pathophysiology of diarrhea. J Clin Invest. 2003;111:931–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Warren CA, Guerrant RL. Clinical disease and pathology. In: Fayer R, Xiao L, editors. Cryptosporidium and Cryprotsporidiosis. 2nd edition. Boca Raton, FL USA: CRC Press; 2008. pp. 235–53. [Google Scholar]

81. Kelly P, Feakins R, Domizio P, Murphy J, Bevins C, Wilson J, et al. Paneth cell granule depletion in the human small intestine under infective and nutritional stress. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;135:303–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

82. Capet C, Kapel N, Huneau JF, Magne D, Laikuen R, Tricottet V, et al. Cryptosporidium parvum infection in suckling rats: Impairment of mucosal permeability and Na+-glucose co-transport. Exp Parasitol. 1999;91:119–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

83. Klein P, Kleinova T, Volek Z, Simunek J. Effect of Cryptosporidium parvum infection on the absorptive capacity and paracellular permeability of the small intestine in neonatal calves. Vet Parasitol. 2008;152:53–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

84. Vilovec J, Koudela B. Pathogenesis of intestinal cryptosporidiosis in conventional and gnotobiotic piglets. Vet Parasitol. 1992;43:25–36. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

85. Mele R, Gomez Morales MA, Tosini F, Pozio E. Cryptosporidium parvum at different developmental stages modulates host cell apoptosis in vitro. Infect Immun. 2004;72:6061–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

86. Buret AG, Chin AC, Scott KG. Infection of human and bovine epithelial cells with Cryptosporidium andersoni induces apoptosis and disrupts tight junctional ZO-1: effects of epiderman growth factor. Int J Parasitol. 2003;33:1363–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

87. Hernandez j, Lackner A, Aye P, Mukherjee K, Tweardy DJ, Mastrangel MA, et al. Substance P is responsible for physiological alterations such as increased chloride ion secretion and glucose malabsorption in cryptosporidiosis. Infect Immun. 2007;75:1137–43. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

88. Robinson P, Martin P Jr, Garza A, D'Souza M, Mastrangelo MA, Tweardy D. Substance P receptor antagonism for treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunosuppressed mice. J Parasitol. 2008;94:1150–4. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

89. Argenzio RA, Lecce J, Powell DW. Prostanoids inhibit intestinal NaCl absorption in experimental porcine cryptosporidiosis. Gastroenterol. 1993;104:440–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

90. Laurent F, Kagnoff MF, Savidge TC, Naciri M, Eckmann L. Human intestinal epithelial cells respond to Cryptosporidium parvum infection with increased prostaglandin H synthase 2 expression and prostaglandin E2 and F2α production. Infect Immun. 1998;66:1787–90. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

91. Kapel N, Huneau JF, Magne D, Tome D, Gobert J-G. Cryptosporidiosis-induced impairment of ion transport and Na+-glucose absorption in adult immunocompromised mice. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:834–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

92. Utech M, Bruwer M, Nusrat A. Tight junctions and cell-cell interactions. Methods Mol Biol. 2006;341:185–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

93. Kandil HM, Berschneider HM, Argenzio RA. Tumor necrosis factor alpha changes porcine intestinal ion transport through a paracrine mechanism involving prostaglandins. Gut. 1994;35:934–40. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

94. Robinson P, Okhuysen PC, Chappell CL, Lewis DE, Shahab I, Janecki A, et al. Expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta in jejuna of volunteers after experimental challenge with Cryptosporidium parvum correlates with exposure but not with symptoms. Infect Immun. 2001;69:1172–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

95. Robinson P, Okhuysen PC, Chappell CL, Weinstock JV, Lewis DE, Actot JK, et al. Substance P expression correlates with severity of diarrhea in cryptosporidiosis. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:290–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

96. Zadrozny LM, Stauffer SH, Armstrong MU, Jones SL, Gookin JL. Neutrophils do not medeiate the pathophysiological sequelae of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in neonatal piglets. Infect Immun. 2006;74:5497–505. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

97. Pantenburg B, Dann SM, Wang HC, Robinson P, Castellanos-Gonzalez A, Lewis DE, et al. Intestinal immune response to human Cryptosporidium sp. Infection. Infect Immun. 2008;76:23–9. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

98. Petry F, Jakobi V, Tessema TS. Host immune response to Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Exp Parasitol. 2010;126:304–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

99. Barakat FM, McDonald V, Foster GR, Tovey MG, Korbel DS. Cryptosporidium parvum infection rapidly induces a protective innate immune response involving type I interferon. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:1548–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

100. Tessema TS, Schwamb B, Lochner M, Förster I, Jakobi V, Petry F. Dynamics of gut mucosal and systemic Th1/Th2 cytokine responses in interferon-gamma and interleukin-12p40 knockout mice during primary and challenge Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Immunobiology. 2009;214:454–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

101. Wang HC, Dann SM, Okhuysen PC, Lewis DE, Chappell CL, Adler DG, et al. High levels of CXCL10 are produced by intestinal epithelial cells in AIDS patients with active cryptosporidiosis but not after reconstitution of immunity. Infect Immun. 2007;75:481–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

102. Tessema TS, Dauber E, Petry F. Adoptive transfer of protective immunity from Cryptosporidium parvum-infected interferon-gamma and interleukin-12-deficient mice to naive recipients. Vaccine. 2009;27:6575–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

103. McDonald V, Pollok RC, Dhaliwal W, Naik S, Farthing MJ, Bajaj-Elliott M. A potential role for interleukin-18 in inhibition of the development of Cryptosporidium parvum. Clin Exp Immunol. 2006;145:555–62. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

104. Gookin JL, Duckett LL, Armstrong MU, Stauffer SH, Finnegan CP, Murtaugh MP, Argenzio RA. Nitric oxide synthase stimulates prostaglandin synthesis and barrier function in C. parvum-infected porcine ileum. Am J Physiol. 2004;287:G571–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

105. Leitch GJ, He Q. Reactive nitrogen and oxygen species ameliorate experimental cryptosporidiosis in the neonatal BALB/c mouse model. Infect Immun. 1999;67:5885–91. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

106. Nordone SK, Gookin JL. Lymphocytes and not IFN-gamma mediate expression of iNOS by intestinal epithelium in murine cryptosporidiosis. Parasitol Res. 2010;106:1507–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

107. Leitch GJ, He Q. Arginine-derived nitric oxide reduces fecal oocyst shedding in nude mice infected with Cryptosporidium parvum. Infect Immun. 1994;62:5173–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

108. Gookin JL, Chiang S, Allen J, Armstrong MU, Stauffer SH, Finnegan C, et al. NF-kappaB-mediated expression of iNOS promotes epithelial defense against infection by Cryptosporidium parvum in neonatal piglets. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006;290:G164–74. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

109. Ponnuraj EM, Hayward AR. Intact intestinal mRNAs and intestinal epithelial cell esterase, but not Cryptosporidium parvum, reach mesenteric lymph nodes of infected mice. J Immunol. 2001;167:5321–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

110. Auray G, Lacroix-Lamandé S, Mancassola R, Dimier-Poisson I, Laurent F. Involvement of intestinal epithelial cells in dendritic cell recruitment during C. parvum infection. Microbes Infect. 2007;9:574–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

111. Borad A, Ward H. Human immune responses in cryptosporidiosis. Future Microbiol. 2010;5:507–19. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

112. Takeuchi D, Jones VC, Kobayashi M, Suzuki F. Cooperative role of macrophages and neutrophils in host Antiprotozoan resistance in mice acutely infected with Cryptosporidium parvum. Infect Immun. 2008;76:3657–63. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

113. Preidis GA, Wang HC, Lewis DE, Castellanos-Gonzalez A, Rogers KA, Graviss EA, ey al Seropositive human subjects produce interferon gamma after stimulation with recombinant Cryptosporidium hominis gp16. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77:583–5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

114. Ehigiator HN, Romagnoli P, Priest JW, Secor WE, Mead JR. Induction of murine immune responses by DNA encoding a 23-kDa antigen of Cryptosporidium parvum. Parasitol Res. 2007;101:943–50. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

115. Ehigiator HN, McNair N, Mead JR. Cryptosporidium parvum: the contribution of Th1-inducing pathways to the resolution of infection in mice. Exp Parasitol. 2007;115:107–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

116. Rogers KA, Rogers AB, Leav BA, Sanchez A, Vannier E, Uematsu S, et al. MyD88-dependent pathways mediate resistance to Cryptosporidium parvum infection in mice. Infect Immun. 2006;74:549–56. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

117. Gomez Morales MA, Mele R, Ludovisi A, Bruschi F, Tosini F, Riganò R, et al. Cryptosporidium parvum-specific CD4 Th1 cells from sensitized donors responding to both fractionated and recombinant antigenic proteins. Infect Immun. 2004;72:1306–10. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

118. Imboden M, Riggs MW, Schaefer DA, Homan EJ, Bremel RD. Antibodies fused to innate immune molecules reduce initiation of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:1385–92. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

119. Ehigiator HN, Romagnoli P, Borgelt K, Fernandez M, McNair N, Secor WE, et al. Mucosal cytokine and antigen-specific responses to Cryptosporidium parvum in IL-12p40 KO mice. Parasite Immunol. 2005;27:17–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

120. Lean IS, Lacroix-Lamandé S, Laurent F, McDonald V. Role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in development of immunity against Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Infect Immun. 2006;74:4379–82. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

121. Jalovecká M, Sak B, Kvác M, Kvetonová D, Kucerová Z, Salát J. Activation of protective cell-mediated immune response in gastric mucosa during Cryptosporidium muris infection and re-infection in immunocompetent mice. Parasitol Res. 2010;106:1159–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

122. Burton AJ, Nydam DV, Jones G, Zambriski JA, Linden TC, Cox G, Davis R, Brown A, Bowman DD. Antibody responses following administration of a Cryptosporidium parvum rCP15/60 vaccine to pregnant cattle. Vet Parasitol. 2010;10:176–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

123. Yu Q, Li J, Zhang X, Gong P, Zhang G, Li S, Wang H. Induction of immune responses in mice by a DNA vaccine encoding Cryptosporidium parvum Cp12 and Cp21 and its effect against hom*ologous oocyst challenge. Vet Parasitol. 2010;172:1–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

124. Liu K, Zai D, Zhang D, Wei Q, Han G, Gao H, Huang B. Divalent Cp15-23 vaccine enhances immune responses and protection against Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Parasite Immunol. 2010;32:335–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

125. Jenkins MC. Present and future control of cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004;3:669–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

126. Tessema TS, Dauber E, Petry F. Adoptive transfer of protective immunity from Cryptosporidium parvum-infected interferon-gamma and interleukin-12-deficient mice to naive recipients. Vaccine. 2009;27:6575–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

127. Hong-Xuan H, Lei C, Cheng-Min W, Kai Z, Yi T, Xi-Ming Q, Ming-Xing D. Expression of the recombinant fusion protein CP15-23 of Cryptosporidium parvum and its protective test. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2005;5:1292–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

128. Benitez AJ, McNair N, Mead JR. Oral immunization with attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium encoding Cryptosporidium parvum Cp23 and Cp40 antigens induces a specific immune response in mice. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2009;16:1272–8. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

129. Current WL, Garcia LS. Cryptosporidiosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1991;4:325–58. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

130. Arrowood MJ. Diagnosis. In: Fayer R, editor. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press; 1997. pp. 43–64. [Google Scholar]

131. Johnston SP, Ballard MM, Beach MJ, Causer L, Wilkins PP. Evaluation of three commercial assays for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium organisms in fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:623–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

132. Jothikumar N, da Silva AJ, Moura I, Qvarnstrom Y, Hill VR. Detection and differentiation of Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum by dual TaqMan assays. J Med Microbiol. 2008;57:1099–105. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

133. Blagburn BL, Soave R. Prophylaxis and chemotherapy. Human and animal. In: Fayer R, editor. Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press; 1997. pp. 111–28. [Google Scholar]

134. Moroni M, Esposito R, Cemuschi M, Franzetti F, Carosi GP, Fiori GP. Treatment of AIDS-related refractory diarrhoea with octreotide. Digestion. 1993;54(Suppl. 1):30–2. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

135. Rossignol JF. Cryptosporidium and Giardia: treatment options and prospects for new drugs. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124:45–53. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

136. Zardi EM, Picardi A, Afeltra A. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised hosts. Chemotherapy. 2005;51:193–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

137. Griffiths JK, Balakrishnan R, Widmer G, Tzipori S. Paromomysin and geneticin inhibit intracellular Cryptosporidium paervum without trafficking through the host cell cytoplasm: Implications for drug delivery. Infect Immun. 1998;66:3874–83. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

138. Bonafonte M-T, Romagnoli PA, McNair N, Shaw AP, Scanlon M, Leitch GJ, et al. Cryptosporidium parvum: effect of multi-drug reversing agents on the expression and function of ATP-binding cassette transporters. Exp Parasitol. 2004;106:126–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

139. Benitez AJ, McNair N, Mead J. Modulation of gene expression of three Cryptosporidium parvum ATP-binding cassette transporters in response to drug treatment. Parasitol Res. 2007;101:1611–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

140. Zhu F. Cryptosporidiosis in children in Wuhu. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi. 1991;12:286–8. (in Chinese) [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

141. Chen YO, Yao FB, Li HX, Shi WS, Dai MX, Lu M. Cryptosporidium infection and diarrhea in rural and urban areas of Jangsi, People's Republic of China. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30:492–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

142. Wang KX, Li CP, Wang J, Pan BR. Epidemiological survet of cryptosporidiosis in Anhui Province, China. World J Gastroenterol. 2002;8:371–4. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

143. Du XL, Xu JM, Hou M, Yu RB, Ge JJ, Zhu HS, et al. Simultaneous detection of serum immunoglobulin G antibodies to Cryptosporidium parvum by multiplex microbead immunoassay using 3 recognized specific recombinant C. parvum antigens. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;65:271–8. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

144. Le XH, Wang H, Gou JZ, Chen XC, Yang GL, Yang QT, et al. Detection of cryptosporidium infection among AIDS patients in Guangdong and Yunnan. Zhonghua Shi Yan He Lin Chuang Bing Du Xue Za Zhi (in Chinese) 2008;22:339–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

145. Shi K, Jian F, Ly C, Ning C, Zhang L, Ren X, et al. Prevalence, genetic characteristics, and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium species causing infections in farm rabbits in China. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:3263–6. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

146. Chen F, Huang K. Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium in pigs in eastern China. Zoonoses Public Health. 2007;54:393–400. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

147. Feng Y, Lal AA, Li N, Xiao L. Subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. in mice and other small mammals. Exp Parasitol. 2010;127:238–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

148. Feng Y, Li N, Duan L, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium genotype and subtype distribution in raw wastewater in Shanghai, China: evidence for possible unique Cryptosporidium hominis transmission. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47:153–7. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Cryptosporidiosis-an overview (2024)

FAQs

What is the overview of cryptosporidiosis? ›

In humans, cryptosporidiosis mainly involves infection of the jejunum and ileum, resulting in a watery diarrhea lasting up to 2 weeks with the potential for recurrence.

What are the important facts about Cryptosporidium? ›

Key points

Cryptosporidiosis is a disease that causes watery diarrhea. It is caused by a microscopic germ (parasite) called Cryptosporidium. This parasite can live in water, food, soil, or on surfaces that have been contaminated with infected poop.

What does Cryptosporidium poop look like? ›

Diarrhea is usually watery with mucus. Rarely, there may also be blood or pus (white blood cells) in the diarrhea. Sometimes, however, a person who has cryptosporidiosis may not experience any noticeable symptoms at all.

What are the stages of Cryptosporidium? ›

Cryptosporidium spp. [these species cause cryptosporidiosis in vertebrates, especially neonates] Parasite morphology: The parasites form three developmental stages: meronts, gamonts and oocysts.

What kills Cryptosporidium? ›

An application of hydrogen peroxide seems to work best. Soak contaminated surfaces for 20 minutes with a 3% hydrogen peroxide (99% kill rate), and then rinse them thoroughly. No disinfectant is guaranteed to be completely effective against Cryptosporidium.

Does crypto go away on its own? ›

If you have a healthy immune system, cryptosporidiosis usually goes away on its own in about two weeks. Some people have symptoms that come and go for 30 days or more. If you have a weakened (compromised) immune system, you can have symptoms for months or years.

How does the body get rid of Cryptosporidium? ›

Most people with a healthy immune system don't need to be treated. Cryptosporidiosis will resolve on its own. In those who have a weak immune system, the focus of treatment is often on getting the immunity back. Otherwise, a medicine called nitazoxanide can be used to treat this parasite.

How long does cryptosporidiosis last? ›

How long does it last? In healthy people, symptoms usually last about 2 weeks. The symptoms may go in cycles in which you seem to get better for a few days, then feel worse, before the illness ends. Most healthy people do not need any specific treatment and will recover on their own.

Is Cryptosporidium highly contagious? ›

You should pay special attention to hygiene during farm visits, washing hands after any contact with animals, and eating only in designated areas. Cryptosporidiosis is highly infectious, so you need to be very clean around your home for at least 48 hours after your symptoms stop.

What is the best way to remove Cryptosporidium? ›

Boiling (Rolling boil for 1 minute) has a very high effectiveness in killing Cryptosporidium; Filtration has a high effectiveness in removing Cryptosporidium when using an absolute less than or equal to 1 micron filter (NSF Standard 53 or 58 rated “cyst reduction / removal” filter);

What temperature kills crypto? ›

Oocysts are not killed by typical household disinfectants, including bleach, but are killed at temperatures over 160 degrees Fahrenheit (hotter than most domestic hot tap water). Thorough drying in a clothes dryer will kill oocytes by desiccating them.

How is the Cryptosporidium destroyed? ›

Bringing water to a rolling boil for one minute will kill most organisms, including Cryptosporidium.

What is the case definition of Cryptosporidium? ›

I. IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION OF CASES

A. Clinical Description: A gastrointestinal illness caused by the protozoan Cryptosporidium spp. and characterized by profuse watery diarrhea, abdominal cramping, anorexia, low-grade fever, nausea, and vomiting.

What is the description of Cryptosporidium parvum? ›

Cryptosporidium parvum, a protozoal parasite, may be carried asymptomatically in adult ruminants and New World camelids and may cause diarrhea in young animals. Diagnosis is by fecal examination but asymptomatic animals will shed the organism intermittently, making diagnosis difficult.

What is the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis? ›

Cryptosporidium may be found in soil, food and water, or on surfaces that have been contaminated with faeces from infected humans or animals. An outbreak investigation is required if two or more cases are clustered in a geographical area or institution.

What are the long term effects of cryptosporidiosis? ›

Individuals were 6 times more likely to report chronic diarrhoea and weight loss up to 28 months after a Cryptosporidium infection than controls. Long-term abdominal pain, loss of appetite, fatigue, vomiting, joint pain, headache and eye pain were also 2–3 times more likely following a Cryptosporidium infection (Fig.

Top Articles
Ring of wealth (i)
Role of Smart Contracts in Decentralized Finance
Umbc Baseball Camp
Thor Majestic 23A Floor Plan
What is Mercantilism?
How Much Does Dr Pol Charge To Deliver A Calf
You can put a price tag on the value of a personal finance education: $100,000
Remnant Graveyard Elf
Uvalde Topic
Tcu Jaggaer
Lima Crime Stoppers
What Is A Good Estimate For 380 Of 60
735 Reeds Avenue 737 & 739 Reeds Ave., Red Bluff, CA 96080 - MLS# 20240686 | CENTURY 21
Morgan And Nay Funeral Home Obituaries
Jesus Calling Oct 27
7543460065
Webcentral Cuny
Prosser Dam Fish Count
Craigslist Free Stuff Merced Ca
Osborn-Checkliste: Ideen finden mit System
How to Download and Play Ultra Panda on PC ?
Mtr-18W120S150-Ul
Gazette Obituary Colorado Springs
About My Father Showtimes Near Copper Creek 9
Engineering Beauties Chapter 1
Bill Remini Obituary
Inbanithi Age
Prot Pally Wrath Pre Patch
Lexus Credit Card Login
Craiglist.nj
Soul Eater Resonance Wavelength Tier List
Villano Antillano Desnuda
R/Airforcerecruits
Free T33N Leaks
Rural King Credit Card Minimum Credit Score
Will there be a The Tower season 4? Latest news and speculation
Marlene2295
Frequently Asked Questions - Hy-Vee PERKS
3 Bedroom 1 Bath House For Sale
Mbi Auto Discount Code
2024 Coachella Predictions
Mp4Mania.net1
ATM Near Me | Find The Nearest ATM Location | ATM Locator NL
Why Gas Prices Are So High (Published 2022)
Instafeet Login
Pensacola Cars Craigslist
Rage Of Harrogath Bugged
Culvers Lyons Flavor Of The Day
Wayne State Academica Login
Paul Shelesh
Ajpw Sugar Glider Worth
The Hardest Quests in Old School RuneScape (Ranked) – FandomSpot
Latest Posts
Article information

Author: Carlyn Walter

Last Updated:

Views: 6047

Rating: 5 / 5 (70 voted)

Reviews: 93% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Carlyn Walter

Birthday: 1996-01-03

Address: Suite 452 40815 Denyse Extensions, Sengermouth, OR 42374

Phone: +8501809515404

Job: Manufacturing Technician

Hobby: Table tennis, Archery, Vacation, Metal detecting, Yo-yoing, Crocheting, Creative writing

Introduction: My name is Carlyn Walter, I am a lively, glamorous, healthy, clean, powerful, calm, combative person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.